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الاثنين، 5 ديسمبر 2016

There are Three Types of Engineers in the World Find out which type you are.


     In life, we always find ourselves in front of choices. Just this morning, I had to choose whether to drive my car to work or book a ride. Then, I had to choose whether to make myself an Americano or a cappuccino. Later today, I will have to choose between having salad for lunch or going for a sandwich. I expect that as soon as I arrive home, I will have to choose between taking a nap and going straight to the gym. We’re free to make choices – that’s part of being human in this day and age. But aside from what to eat, what to drink, how to go to the office or whether to exercise or not, perhaps the most important choice we have to make is what to make of our lives. Do we want to take up an active role in changing the world? Do we want to sit on the fence and watch other people do it? Or do we want not to care about anything at all? In most of my public speaking engagements in engineering conferences, I always break the ice by telling my audience how I believe that engineers, be they electrical, mechanical, civil, electronics, or chemical (of course, the list goes infinitely long), are the real superheroes of this world. But perhaps I have to clarify myself. I will tell you why in a bit.


See, from my more than 18 years of experience in the engineering industry, I have worked with more than a hundred engineers of a wide gamut of specializations. Based on experience, I can say that there are actually three types of engineers:

1. Engineers who make things happen. 
2. Engineers who watch things happen.
3. Engineers who say “WTF just happened?”

Engineers who make things happen are a joy to work with. They are ever curious and are always in active pursuit of solutions, not only to engineering problems in the office, but also to the world’s most pressing challenges. They are confident to discuss their ideas, and do not shy away from criticism. They have big audacious goals, daring, chivalrous and gallant in every task. More than talkers, they are doers: They are not content with delegating tasks; they do them themselves and show to their peers the right way. They do not slack: They are go-getters, and have a nose for excellent opportunities. They are consistent, but are ever ambitious to reach greater heights. Despite being so, they are realistic and are always focused on the fulfilment of their goals. The likes of Jack Welch, Michael Bloomberg, Larry Page, Sergey Brin and Elon Musk are some of the notable engineers who are visionaries and doers at the same time. They make things happen. In every project or task, they will either find a way, or make one. I call them “Engineering Champions.”





Engineers who watch things happen always prefer to color inside the lines. It is not that they lack aptitude or has low IQ. In fact, most of them have stellar profiles and tremendous engineering skills. However, these engineers always play safe, lacking the inspiration to do something meaningful, not persistent enough to make an impact and they just watch the world go by. They are usually quiet in meetings, and almost always agree with the ideas of others (I don’t know if they truly do, or they just want to avoid arguments). They are always ready to receive indications, but are never initiators. They are not exactly frustrated, but they seem to lack motivation to push the envelope of their abilities. To me, they are like birds always perched on a branch, hesitant to attempt to fly from fear of crashing to the ground.





Engineers who just wonder what happened are the irritating ones. You will hear them say: “WTF just happened?” Working with them is like pulling teeth. They usually zone out in meetings, and often seem detached from reality. They always see the negative in everything, and always have ready excuses when tasked to do something. They are the lazy, sluggish, indolent and slothful engineers who you often hear say “No, we can’t do that!” They are the ones who surrender before the battle even begins. They don’t seem to care that other engineers are excelling in their jobs; they are contented with mediocrity, and always have an air of nonchalance. I am sure you know someone who has this “clueless” character.



Like I said above, I will take this opportunity to clarify myself. Not all engineers are worthy to be called the real heroes of this world. The real heroes are the engineers that contribute in shaping the future. They are the ones that help surmount the impediments to social and economic growth of countries. They are the ones that make life easier and better for all humanity. They are the ones that leave a legacy for the future generations to enjoy. The real engineering heroes are making an impact, creating a social movement to fight poverty; re-engineering the food industry to fight hunger; engineering the chemical composition to fight diseases; and build affordable materials to improve humanity. They don’t just build tall buildings, large electrical power plants, chemical labs or mechanical engines, these engineers inspire people because they did something right. (They did something, and it was right thing to do). They’re like a magnet so powerful that you have to join their cause. If we can choose a blue shirt over a red, the Warriors over the Cavs, or beer over wine, perhaps we can also choose to make things happen, rather than sit on the sidelines or turn a blind eye on everything. So let me ask you, which type of Engineer are you?  Do you make things happen… watch things happen… or don’t have a clue what happened?






Are You Really an Engineering ”?



Are You an Engineer or Just an Engineering Graduate? What is the true essence of being an “engineer”?

Anyone can take up Engineering, but not everyone has what it takes to become an “engineer”. Sure, one can pass all his subjects, graduate, get certified and attain a title, but there is more to being an engineer than just fulfilling mundanities. Like what I said in a previous article, being an engineer is nothing short of super heroic, thus it comes with great responsibilities and immense challenges. With people looking up to engineers to provide convincing answers to the world’s most confounding questions, the onus is theirs to prove themselves worthy of such trust, regard and, if you will, reverence.


Engineers should make an impact to society

 Engineers are individuals endowed with the ability to understand the world through a different prism. They discern the mathematical and scientific basis of everything around them, and are thus able to analyze their surroundings through quantitative analysis. Engineers should apply this knowledge and skill to create a positive impact that will benefit the people of today and of generations to come. Formed by years of study, research and experience, real engineers should have the ability to solve the world’s most critical problems, be they in energy, environment, technology, transportation, infrastructure, healthcare or food, to name a few. Engineers should seek to create a better world for everyone. While professionals from other fields strive to understand and define what is, engineers breathe life to what ifs. For instance, biomedical engineers should spearhead the manufacture of medicines for the world’s deadliest diseases, like Cancers and AIDS. Mechanical engineers should invent machines that do not only operate with unparalleled efficiency, but are also respectful to the environment. Civil engineers should build more roads and infrastructure that will connect remote areas to economic and social centers. Electrical engineers should install power plants that will provide reliable electricity to communities with limited access to usable energy. Computer engineers should continue to create programs and applications that will integrate everyday activities and thus simplify the lives of millions of people.

Engineers should think outside the box. What box?

Engineers should ever be creative and inquisitive. Engineers should be able to transcend their comfort zones and venture out of the ordinary in search of the best solutions to the world’s grandest concerns. Engineers should always look to outdo themselves, and should never rest on their laurels. Imagine, had Apple, Samsung, LG or Sony engineers simply replicated the 5110, will we ever have today’s top-spec smartphones that have greatly contributed to our productivity? Had Airbus or Boeing engineers stopped improving aircraft, will we ever enjoy the comfort and safety of air travel that we have today? Had biomedical engineers gave up on finding a cure for deadly diseases, perhaps tuberculosis or malaria are still death sentences to anyone afflicted.

 


Engineers should remain steadfast

 The tasks at hand are enormous, so the profession is not for those looking for a stroll in the park. Engineers should have the heart of a lion and the resilience of a bamboo. Engineers will surely fail, and not once or twice, but many times over in their careers. There will be times when engineers will need to go back to square-one just when the end is within arm’s reach. There will be designs that will look good on paper and perform extremely well on simulations, just to flop on the prototype stage. There will buildings, bridges or roads that cannot be constructed as designed, due to various constraints. Engineers should not be fazed by such setbacks. Engineers should find the strength to march on and assume responsibility for their decisions and actions. They must always bear in mind the reason why chose to pursue the field in the beginning. They must always be proud of their chosen profession, and maintain their commitment to their avowed mission. At the core of the engineering profession should be a genuine regard for the well-being of others, an insatiable hunger for innovation and an unwavering dedication to the field. It would be impossible to define what makes an engineer in a short feature such as this, given its different facets, the complexity of character and varying definitions. However, I hope that I have drawn a visible line between a real engineer and a mere engineering graduate. So now, I give the floor to you, my readers. What do you think makes an engineer?

الأحد، 20 نوفمبر 2016

THESE DOCTORAT: RENFORCEMENT DES PAROIS D'UN TUNNEL PAR DES BOULONS EXPANSIFS



THESE
présentée devant
L'ECOLE CENTRALE DE LYON
pour obtenir le titre de
DOCTEUR
spécialité
GENIE CIVIL
par
Stéphane CHARMETTON
RENFORCEMENT DES PAROIS D'UN TUNNEL
PAR DES BOULONS EXPANSIFS
RETOUR D'EXPERIENCE ET ETUDE NUMERIQUE





download

Tunnelling in Weak Rocks


ELSEVIER GEO-ENGINEERING BOOK SERIES
VOLUME 5

Tunnelling in Weak Rocks

Bhawani Singh
(Professor (Retd
IIT Roorke
Rajnish K. Goel
Scientist F
CMRI Regional Centre
Roorkee, India
Geo-Engineering Book Series Editor
John A. Hudson FREng
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine,
University of London, UK
2006




download

here

Travaux souterrains



Travaux souterrains


TEChnIquES DEl’IngÉnIEuR
l’expertise technique et scientifique de référence
c5565 
Travaux souterrains 

Date de publication : 10/11/1994
:Par
Pierre GESTA 
Ingénieur de l'École Centrale de Paris, Ancien Directeur à la SOGEA, Président du Comité technique de
(l'Association Française des Travaux en Souterrains (AFTES




السبت، 5 نوفمبر 2016

télécharge des livres sur : livres cuisine


Résultat de recherche d'images pour "livres cuisine"


télécharge des livres  sur

السبت، 20 أغسطس 2016

Caterpillar Plans to Sell Underground-Mining Equipment Lines

Caterpillar Plans to Sell Underground-Mining Equipment Lines

Caterpillar Inc. is retreating from the slumping coal industry, saying it plans to put its equipment lines for underground mines up for sale and lay off workers.

The Peoria, Ill., company said Thursday it will cut the workforce at its Houston, Pa., plant by about 155 jobs and will consider closing the plant if a buyer can’t be found. The plant produces a variety of coal-harvesting equipment and hauling vehicles and gear used in underground mines.

About 40 jobs also will be cut from a mining-equipment plant in Denison, Texas, where drills are made for underground mines. Caterpillar said it will stop taking orders for the for coal-mining equipment made at the Houston and Denison plants but will continue to support equipment already in use.

Demand for coal in the U.S. has fallen sharply in recent years as stricter environmental standards and low prices for natural gas make coal less attractive to burn in domestic power-generating plants. Caterpillar acquired the underground equipment lines as part of its $8 billion-plus purchase in 2011 of mining equipment company Bucyrus International.

“Caterpillar remains committed to an extensive mining-product portfolio,” said Denise Johnson, president of the mining-equipment business. “We firmly believe mining is an attractive long-term industry. At the same time, we continue to manage through the longest down-cycle in our history.”

Caterpillar is expected to log its fourth-straight year of lower sales in 2016. The mining-equipment business has been among the company’s weakest units recently amid slumping prices for mined commodities and reduced investments in mine expansions and new equipment. Caterpillar’s mining unit lost $163 million in the second quarter as sales dropped 29% during the quarter from a year earlier.

Caterpillar also announced it will revamp its plant in Winston-Salem, N.C. The plant has been producing powertrain components for giant trucks used in surface mines. But slumping demand for the trucks has left the Winston-Salem plant, as well as a plant in Decatur, Ill., where the trucks are assembled, severely underused in recent years.

The company said it will move the component assembly work to Decatur and repurpose the Winston-Salem plant for warehousing, machining or fabrication operations for its railroad-equipment business, Progress Rail. The Winston-Salem plant was opened in 2011 as part of a push by Caterpillar to expand production capacity, particularly for big mining trucks. But demand for the trucks began dropping shortly after the plant opened.

الجمعة، 1 يوليو 2016

Newmont Mining Selling Indonasian Mine for $1.3 Billion

An aerial view of Bitu Hijau Open pit Copper and Gold mine.

U.S. gold producer Newmont Mining Corp. said Thursday that it would sell its 48.5% economic interest in the operator of the Batu Hijau copper and gold mine in Indonesia to local company PT Amman Mineral Internasional for $1.3 billion.

The announcement came as Indonesian-listed oil and gas company PT Medco Energi Internasional Tbk said it had acquired a controlling stake in PT Amman for $2.6 billion.

A group of Indonesian investors led by Medco had earlier expressed interest in purchasing as much as 76% of the mine operator, PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara. Medco said Thursday that it would join forces with an investment firm led by banker Agus Projosasmito and receive funding for the purchase from Indonesia’s three largest state-owned banks.

Japan’s Sumitomo Corp., Newmont’s partner in Newmont Nusa Tenggara, has also agreed to sell its ownership stake to PT Amman.

Newmont said the sale of its stake at “fair value aligned with its strategic priorities to lower debt, fund highest margin projects and create value for shareholders.”

“Our goal is to build a portfolio of long-life, low-cost assets with the technical, social and political risks we are well-equipped to manage,” Newmont Chief Executive Gary Goldberg said in a conference call to discuss the transaction, noting that earlier divestments have lowered risk.

The sale will involve a closing payment of $920 million and contingent payments of up to $403 million, Newmont said. Globally, Newmont has gained $1.9 billion from sales of noncore assets since 2013.

The latest deal, which is expected to close in the third quarter, comes as miners world-wide are re-evaluating their assets, having been hit by a slump in commodities prices. In early June, mining giant BHP Billiton Ltd. agreed to sell its 75% interest in Indonesia’s IndoMet Coal to local producer PT Alam Tri Abadi, in a move to pursue other growth options that BHP said were more attractive for future investment.

Colorado-based Newmont and Sumitomo operate the Batu Hijau copper and gold mine on the island of Sumbawa in Western Indonesia.

The mine—one of Indonesia’s largest copper deposits—has been a largely profitable venture for Newmont since it started commercial operations there in 2000.

Keeping production up, however, will require a hefty investment in the next phase of development at a time when Newmont has been hit by increasingly burdensome regulation and uncertainty about the future of its operating contract.

Jorge Beristain, a metals and mining analyst at Deutsche Bank, estimated that around $1.6 billion is needed for the next stage of expansion.

The company said its debt burden would “improve significantly” without Batu Hijau.

Some analysts had earlier said Newmont’s efforts to sell off its stake also suggests concerns about the long-term outlook for the Indonesian mining industry.

Vast deposits of copper, nickel and coal have lured foreign miners to Indonesia for decades and mining has contributed greatly to economic growth in the country. But growing nationalism and the desire among some officials to grab back control of the country’s natural resources has raised risks.

Rules issued in recent years have pushed foreign miners to divest majority stakes, pay higher taxes and royalties and invest in processing unrefined ores. By law, miners are also required to eventually shift from long-term contracts of work to a licensing system. Analysts and miners say the rules make little sense at a time when miners globally are re-evaluating their investments and Indonesia is trying to draw in more foreign capital.


After the rule banning the export of unrefined ores took effect, Newmont ceased exports and later declared force majeure on existing contracts. To receive an export permit—a biannual process—the U.S. Company has had to show it is making progress on refining or stop its shipments. Delays in shipments in 2015 caused Newmont’s fourth-quarter revenue to fall 10% from a year earlier.

الجمعة، 3 يونيو 2016

Volcano Eruption in Papua New Guinea



Volcano Eruption in Papua New Guinea

الثلاثاء، 31 مايو 2016

Relative age dating (very difficult)

Relative age dating (difficult)

Relative age dating (moderate)

Relative age dating (average)

Relative age dating (easy)

Global sea level change- Glacial volume

Global sea level change-Oceanic volcanic plateau formation

Global sea level change-Thermal expansion

الاثنين، 30 مايو 2016

Plate boundaries-Spreading ridge

Plate boundaries-Fracture zone

Plate boundaries-Continental collision

الأحد، 29 مايو 2016

Formation of an ore deposit

السبت، 21 مايو 2016

Geology of Idaho


Geology of Idaho


الجمعة، 20 مايو 2016

Probable asteroid (Apophis) impact

After its discovery in 2004, astronomers gave the asteroid Apophis a 2.4 percent chance of hitting the earth during its close flyby on April 13, 2029. If the 1,066-foot (325 meters) asteroid were to strike our planet, the blast could equal hundreds of megatons.

Fortunately, further analysis showed that Apophis will miss the Earth by 19,400 miles (31,300 kilometers) in 2029. Extrapolating further into the future, another approach in 2036 is an even bigger miss. Apophis has only a one in a million chance of hitting Earth on that pass.

Originally given a 1 in 37 chance to hit Earth, the near Earth object Apophis caused a bit of a panic in late 2004 with a high probability to hit Earth in 2029 or 2036. But what would happen if such a massive object collided with mother Earth? Don't even bother comparing it to a nuclear bomb because it's way beyond that.


الخميس، 12 مايو 2016

Inside the Planet

Introduction


Seismologists, geologists who study seismic waves noticed in the early 20th century that P waves bended, or refracted, in their journey through Earth. Observations at stations far removed from the earthquake focus recorded waves that had traveled through the planet’s interior, as illustrated in part (1) of the figure.. Travel times of these waves indicated a refracted path, as shown in the figure, and wave speed is the distance divided by time (as determined by the amount of time elapsed since the start of the earthquake). Refraction was not too surprising because the increased pressure in Earth’s interior results in firmer structures and more resistance to oscillation, so the wave speed is greater and seismic waves refract. What surprised early seismologists was that beyond a certain point about 7,200 miles (11,600 km) from the focus, at an angular distance of 105 degrees S waves disappeared! 


In 1906 the British seismologist Richard D. Oldham (1858–1936) proposed that the disappearance of the shear waves was due to the “shadow” of a liquid core. Since S waves are shear, they cannot propagate through liquid, so the existence of a liquid center inside the planet would explain why seismometers fail to record shear waves on the other side of the planet from the focus, as shown in part (2) of the fi gure below. P waves, being compression waves, refract at the boundary between rock and liquid, creating a smaller “shadow.” Th e rocky interior beneath the crust is called the mantle, and in 1914 the German seismologist Beno Gutenberg (1889–1960) used the seismic wave results to calculate that the mantlecore boundary is located at a depth of about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) below the surface. However, in 1936 the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann (1888– 1993) analyzed seismic wave data and discovered an additional refractory step of P waves. Her analysis suggested the existence of another boundary, which she placed at a depth of about 3,200 miles (5,150 km). This boundary is between an outer core and an inner core. 

The use of seismic waves to image Earth’s interior is similar to the use of ultrasound waves to image the body’s interior or sound waves in sonar to image the seafloor. Unlike ultrasound and sonar techniques, though, seismologists usually do not generate seismic waves these are natural occurrences beyond the control of researchers. Yet the waves reveal a lot of information about otherwise inaccessible places. Seismic waves are also plentiful; about 1 million or so earthquakes occur each year in the world, and although most of these are fortunately minor they are detectable with sensitive instruments. 

By studying the nature and speed of seismic waves, geologists have learned much about the Earth’s interior. Earth consists of the following several layers:
  • crust, composed of rocks having relatively low density, extending from the continental surface to an average depth of about 22 miles (35 km) and from the ocean floor an average of about four miles (6.4 km) down to a boundary known as the Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho for short), named after the Croatian scientist Andrija Mohorovičić (1857–1936); 
  • mantle, extending from the crust to about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) below the surface, and divided into an upper and a lower section; 
  • outer core, which is liquid and extends from the mantle border to a depth of about 3,200 miles (5,150 km); 
  • inner core, which is solid, with a radius of about 750 miles (1,220 km).

The mantle gets its name from Wiechert, who thought of it as a coat that covered the core (mantle derives from the German word, mantel, for “shell” or “coat”). About 67 percent of Earth’s mass is contained in this large region. The mantle is mostly solid, although as discussed below there is some degree of fluidity in spots; it consists of minerals such as olivine and another silicate called perovskite (MgSiO3). Silicon and aluminium are less abundant in the mantle compared to the crust, but magnesium is much more plentiful. 

Wiechert assumed from the studies of Earth’s density that the core must be dense. A greater density for the core also makes sense because the large portion of the heavier elements would have sunk to the interior as the hot, molten planet formed long ago. Iron and nickel possess relatively high densities and are commonly found in certain meteorites, indicating their abundance throughout the solar system. These metals are likely constituents of the core. The absence of shear wave propagation indicates the outer core is liquid, but studies of other seismic waves indicates a density slightly less than that expected if the outer core contained only melted iron and nickel. Instead, the outer core is about 90 percent iron and nickel, and most of this is iron about 85 percent of the outer core is made of this element. The remaining 10 percent consists of lighter elements such as sulphur and oxygen.

The inner core forms a boundary with the outer core, reflecting some of the waves and transmitting the rest. Shear waves cannot pass through the outer core, but as compression waves cross the boundary between the inner and outer core, some of these disturbances create shear waves. The shear waves travel through the inner core and get converted back into compression waves as they proceed from the inner to the outer core. Seismologists can detect the paths of these waves, and the propagation of shear waves in the inner core implies it cannot be liquid. Density studies suggest the inner core is mostly solid iron, mixed with a small percentage of nickel. 
Researchers continue to study seismic waves and similar data to learn more of the details on the structure and composition inside Earth. In 2005 John W. Hernlund and Paul J. Tackley of the University of California, Los Angeles, and Christine Thomas of the University of Liverpool in the Britain found data suggesting the presence of a thin layer around the mantle-core boundary. This layer, previously unknown and not yet widely studied, might help scientists to understand and identify further properties of the mantle. The researchers published their report “A Doubling of the Post-Perovskite Phase Boundary and Structure of the Earth’s Lowermost Mantle” in a 2005 issue of Nature.
Although researchers can study the finer structure of Earth’s hidden interior with sensitive seismometers, a large amount of information could also be gained by burrowing inside and taking a look. There are limitations on how far down people can drill, even with the hardest bits (the tip of the drill), but researchers are sharpening their drill bits in the effort to reach greater depths.

الأحد، 1 مايو 2016

Petroleum system


Petroleum System


In order to understand the petroleum generation and extraction petroleum system should be known
Petroleum system starts with the deposition to storage from where the production is obtained.
Petroleum system journey starts with the deposition of organic matter.

Deposition of organic matter

The deposition of organic matter starts when organism starts to die and deposits deep down the ocean floor and the above deposition of clay (finer grains). The clay particles are about 1/256 mm size and is called shale. Organic matter deposited on the ocean floor cannot be oxidized due to the depth factor so they can produce hydrocarbon. Hydrocarbon generation needs the cooking of organic matter at high temperature and pressure and it is obtained when it goes into overburden of deposition by clay particles and greater depths. 

Source rock

In the petroleum system the source rock are the shale (clay that goes under high pressure and temperature which cooks the organic matter). Sometimes limestone can also be the source rock with 1% of organic matter contains. So theses rocks undergo cooking where the temperature and pressure determines what type of fuel will be generated. Despite of temperature and pressure another factor in producing hydrocarbon is the time span required to generate fuel. The time is a critical factor as if the organic matter is cooked for less time it will not generate hydrocarbon and when it is greater than the oil produce will be converted into gas.

Reservoir rock

Reservoir as indicated by the name reserves of hydrocarbon. the hydrocarbon cannot be obtained from the source rock because of the higher pores but are lesser to none interconnection. For the extraction the pores should be interconnected so that it can travel when are extracted. But if there is no reservoir and obtaining fuel from source rock it must be fractured for permeability generation. Reservoir rock are mostly sandstone which have higher porosity and permeability but in some cases limestone also serves as reservoir rock. Limestone all by self is not a good reservoir due to fine particles present which give less permeability but as limestone is calcium carbonate so it can be dissolved in water which are the Karst topography. Only then can limestone have permeability required for hydrocarbon to be obtained.

Migration

Primary migration

Migration itself is cleared so the primary migration occurs when hydrocarbon moves from source rock to the reservoir rocks. Primary migration occurs when the source rock is fractured due to tectonic forces (plate movements) or by the overburden squeezing the source rock. As HC (hydrocarbon) have low density they moves upward. 

Secondary migration

Secondary migration is the HC movement within the reservoir rocks. The HC will moves upward in the reservoir rocks.

Seal rock

Trap or seal rocks are those that are present above reservoir rocks as HC movement will always be upward. Seal rock are those that have low to none permeability so that HC cannot escape but are trapped within the reservoir rocks. Shale can be seal rock also as they have porosity but do not have permeability factor so HC will be trapped. Types of traps include stratigraphic and structural.
Stratigraphic traps example is shale as a seal rock and structural traps are fold or faults. 

Time period

The last thing in the petroleum system is time as have said it above already, time is required for HC generation which is always critical. No more time and no less time while cooking of the organic matter or it will not produce the fuel.

Online geology degree and courses

Online geology degree and courses


Online geology degree and courses are offered at multiple forums. Geology is study of the rocks, minerals, and the forces that shape the earth, like water, wind and earthquakes. Learn about the levels of geology degrees online you can pursue partly or fully online, common courses and career options in the field. Schools offering Environmental Science degrees can also be found in these popular choices.
A geology degree is widely valued by employers when looking for employment as a geoscientist, hydrogeologist, or an environmental attorney. Geology majors also go on to work as a sedimentologist, a geophysicist, and many other important careers that help our environment. The schools we list on our site are accredited degree programs in geology and related fields at the associate and bachelor’s degree levels.

Definition of Geology

Geology is a science that studies the Earth and the materials that it’s made of. It looks at the rocks that the Earth is composed of, the structure of the earth’s materials, and the processes acting upon those materials that cause the Earth to evolve. Through the study of geology we can understand the history of the Earth. Geologists decipher evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and the past climates the Earth has been through. Geology also includes the study of organisms that have inhabited the planet, and how they’ve changed over time.
Currently we use geology for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration, evaluating water resources, predicting natural hazards, finding remedies for environmental problems, providing insights into past climate change, and geotechnical engineering. Through geology degrees people can study geology, become a geologist, and use their knowledge to improve our Earth.

A Geology Education - An Overview

If you’re interested in studying online geology degree, there are a few different degree options open to you in both undergrad and graduate education. The following are a few options:
  • Bachelor of Arts in Geology: The BA in geology degree is intended for students who plan to pursue teacher certification, natural resource management, scientific or technical writing, and other fields that combine a strong liberal arts background with science training. BA classes may include earth materials, minerals, igneous and metamorphic rocks, oceanography, principles of astronomy, deformation of the Earth, sedimentary processes, earth surface processes, and field methods.
  • Bachelor of Science in Geology: The BS in geology degree differs from the BA in that it has a strong mathematical component. It’s typically designed for students planning to pursue graduate study in geology, or work as a professional geologist. Courses may include: History of the Earth, Earth materials, deformation of the Earth, sedimentary processes, Earth surface processes, field methods, chemistry, physics, physics in electricity and magnetism, and calculus classes.
  • Master of Science in Geology: This is a graduate degree in geology. Master programs are advanced geology degrees with a focus on geology classes. They typically come in both thesis and non-thesis options. Those who want to get a master’s in geology degree must have an undergraduate degree in geology or a closely related science field. Sometimes they’ll let applicants without a bachelor’s degree in geology to take pre-requisite classes before beginning a master’s program. Pre-requisite classes include: physical geology, mineralogy, paleobiology, petrography, geologic field methods, stratigraphy, igneous/metamorphic petrogenesis, structural geology, sedimentary petrogenesis, and introduction to geophysics.
  • Doctorate in Geology: A PhD is the highest level of degree a person can get in geology. These programs are designed to develop creative scholarship and to prepare the student for a professional career in the geological sciences. Typically a person chooses a specialization or focus such as geochemistry, geology, geophysics, planetary geology, minerals, or more. Students can be admitted into PhD programs with either a bachelor’s or master’s degree in geology. Depending on the previous degree earned, a PhD may take one to two years of study.
In all geology degree levels, the goal is for students to master basic concepts and vocabulary in geology. Through these programs you’ll learn the following materials:
  • Plate tectonics
  • Origin and classification of rocks and minerals
  • Geological time scale and how this relates to major events in the history of Earth and its life
  • Geophysical properties of the Earth and crustal deformation
  • Processes that shape the surface of the Earth
  • Environmental hazards and issues
You’ll also be expected to:
  • Develop skills in observing and recording geologic features and processes
  • Develop competency in the interpretation of earth science data, including both qualitative and quantitative analyses
  • Achieve competence in: locating and interpreting scientific literature,
  • Giving oral presentations,
  • Using computers at a level consistent with current professional practice
  • Be able to express earth science concepts in writing

What Geology online Degrees Are Available?

You can pursue a Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, Master of Science in geology and Ph.D. in geology. People who earn a B.S. in Geology usually pursue advanced degrees. However, in a Master of Science program in geology, your classmates may have a B.S. in Geology or an undergraduate degree in a related field like engineering or physics. The online geology degree or online geoscience degree can be obtain in B.S.
While some schools offer some geology courses online, entire undergraduate degree programs online are extremely rare. Many science lab courses can't be completed online, and fieldwork requires in-person attendance. However, it is possible to earn a Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, or Master of Science in Geology entirely online with taking online geology courses.


                                                                                                                                                                   

Online Degrees                Bachelor's and Master's degrees available online
                                                                                                                                                                   

Online                              Computer, software, completing assignments by due date, degree 

Requirements                   completion within 8 years

                                                                                                                                                                   
Common Courses            Soils, hydrology, plate tectonics, chemistry, physics

                                                                                                                                                                   

Career Options                Geochemist, mineralogist, government geologist, geology teacher 
                                                                                                                                                                   

How Do I Complete My Degree Online?


In an online degree geology program, classes start and end at the same calendar time as the on-campus courses. You do not have to be logged in to the class at a specific time, and instead may view the lectures at your convenience. However, during the course, you may be given assignments that have specific due dates. All of your assignments must be completed by the last day of class.
You may have up to eight years to complete your degree. Students attending part-time take 3-4 years to complete their geology master's degree online. If you choose to attend full-time, you may be able to complete your geology online degree faster. You will need access to specific software, usually available for purchase through the school.

What Topics Will I Study?

In a bachelor's online degree in geology program, you learn how certain rocks and minerals are formed and how to classify them. You study the forces that shape Earth's surface, such as weather and plate tectonics, the movement of the Earth's crust. You may also take classes about soil, hydrology or palaeontology. You can also expect to take classes in math, computers, chemistry and physics.
You will likely have to complete a field course, in which you may spend an entire semester or a summer in the field, practising your skills on a real-world geology project. Some schools offer field courses on-campus, while others offer them only at off-campus sites.
Master's degree students concentrate coursework and thesis projects on a particular area of interest, like earthquake prediction or environmental geology. Ph.D. students take their interest to the next level by completing a dissertation that contributes original research to their chosen area of geology.

What Kinds of Careers Will Be Open to Me?

While you will be qualified for entry-level employment with only a geology bachelor's degree, many graduates choose to pursue either an advanced geology degree or a professional degree for a career that joins the two interests. For example, you could pursue your law degree and work in environmental law.
Geology graduates can find employment as an oceanographer, geochemist or mineralogist, doing direct science research. You could work for the U.S. Geological Survey, or advise state and local agencies on infrastructure planning and policy. Some graduates with advanced degrees also pursue teaching careers.

What universities offer online degrees?

Online geology courses?



الجمعة، 29 أبريل 2016

Ancient Fossil Forests Discovered in the Arctic

Ancient Fossil Forests Discovered in the Arctic



What did a portion of the main trees on Earth resemble? Earth researchers from Cardiff University diving around in Arctic Norway are surrounding an answer. Furthermore, that answer is: oddly well known. 

UK scientists have uncovered antiquated fossil forest, thought to be somewhat in charge of a stand out amongst the most dramatic moments in the Earth's atmosphere in the previous 400 million years. 

The fossil forest, with tree stumps saved set up, were found in Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago arranged in the Arctic Ocean. They were recognized and portrayed by Dr Chris Berry of the School of Earth and Ocean Sciences. 

Prof John Marshall, of Southampton University, has precisely dated the forest to 380 million years. 

The forest became close to the equator amid the late Devonian period, and could give an understanding into the reason for a 15-fold diminishment in levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air around that time. 

Current speculations propose that amid the Devonian period (420-360 million years back) there was an immense drop in the level of CO2 in the air, thought to be to a great extent created by an adjustment in vegetation from humble plants to the main substantial woods trees. 

Woods hauled CO2 out of the air through photosynthesis, the procedure by which plants make sustenance and tissues – and the arrangement of soils. 

Albeit at first the presence of extensive trees retained a greater amount of the sun's radiation, in the end temperatures on Earth additionally dropped drastically to levels fundamentally the same to those accomplished today due to the diminishment in barometrical CO2. 

In light of the high temperatures and vast measure of precipitation on the equator, it is likely that central forests contributed most to the draw down of CO2. Svalbard was situated on the equator around this time, before the tectonic plate floated north by around 80° to its flow position in the Arctic Ocean. 

"These fossil forests demonstrates to us what the vegetation and scene resembled on the equator 380 million years prior, as the main trees were starting to show up on the Earth," said Dr Berry. 

The group found that the woodlands in Svalbard were framed predominantly of lycopod trees, better known for developing a huge number of years after the fact in coal overwhelms that in the long run transformed into coal stores, for example, those in South Wales. They likewise found that the woodlands were to a great degree thick, with little crevices, around 20cm between each of the trees, which presumably came to around 4m high. 

"Amid the Devonian Period, it is broadly trusted that there was a colossal drop in the level of carbon dioxide in the climate, from 15 times the present add up to something drawing nearer current levels. 

"The development of tree-sized vegetation is the doubtlessly reason for this emotional drop in carbon dioxide in light of the fact that the plants were retaining carbon dioxide through photosynthesis to assemble their tissues, furthermore through the procedure of shaping soils."

Saturn's Crisscrossed Rings Hide Tiny Moon

Saturn's Criss-crossed Rings Hide Tiny Moon




It seems that whenever we look at a new picture of Saturn by NASA’s Cassini mission, there’s always something unique. And often, there’s hidden gem.

Captured on Feb. 11, this observation, at first, doesn't make a whole lot of sense. We already know that Saturn sports hundreds of distinct rings, but they all occupy the same plane. How did Cassini see rings that are criss-crossed?

Actually, this observation only shows one ring plane, but behind are the shadows of each ring being cast on Saturn’s upper atmosphere, creating the illusion there are 2 sets of rings.


At first glance, Saturn's rings appear to be intersecting themselves in an impossible way. In actuality, this view from NASA's Cassini spacecraft shows the rings in front of the planet, upon which the shadow of the rings is cast. And because rings like the A ring and Cassini Division, which appear in the foreground, are not entirely opaque, the disk of Saturn and those ring shadows can be seen directly through the rings themselves.


But while you digest the scene and work out which lines are rings and which are shadows, you’re probably overlooking tiny moon Pan, a 17 mile (or 28 kilometre) wide satellite occupying a gap in the rings (just below the middle of the photo).

Many of the gaps in Saturn’s rings possess small moons whose gravity keeps these rings clear of debris as they orbit. Pan occupies the famous Encke Gap, for example. Many other gaps, however, don’t appear to have moons, so their nature is a little more mysterious. Some theories on ring dynamics suggest some of these gaps may have formed through resonances with Saturn’s larger moons.


The Cassini mission is a cooperative project of NASA, ESA (the European Space Agency) and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard cameras were designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging operations center is based at the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado.



Regardless of how they were formed, Cassini continues to capture their beauty, constantly reaffirming Saturn as the jewel of the solar system.

Giant Sinkhole Eats Highway in Oregon

Giant Sinkhole Eats Highway in Oregon

This gigantic sinkhole opened after a heavy rainstorm along the Oregon coast.
The startling chasm, which started out less than a foot across in mid-December, suddenly turned into a monster 80 feet in diameter on Jan. 28, after an inch and a half of rain caused a culvert to fail and triggered a landslide nearby. The hole has closed down the stretch of U.S. 101 that runs through the unincorporated town of Harbor, just south of the city of Brookings, according to news reports.
Officials reportedly have estimated that it will take at least a week to repair the hole, which started in the parking lot of the Fireside Diner, and then grew to devour a big hunk of the highway. To further exacerbate the situation, a second, smaller sinkhole opened up in the middle of the road itself.
spectacular drone video of the damage, shot by local resident Kyle Rice, already has attracted nearly 200,000 views on YouTube. The hole also has attracted coverage from BBC News and Russia’s RT.com, where some readers used it as fodder for anti-American retorts and conspiracy theories. “Research shows US is one big sinkhole,” one wrote, while another suggested that it may have been caused by “hundreds of underground tunnels throughout America.”


The actual explanation is a bit less bizarre. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, sinkholes happen frequently where the rocks below the land surface are porous enough to be dissolved by groundwater circulating through them. 
Though USGS identifies Florida, Texas, Alabama, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Pennsylvania as the states where the most sinkhole damage occurs, Oregon also has a history of really big sinkholes. The big kahuna was a 50-foot-deep, 100-foot-long hole that appeared on Interstate 5 near Roseburg in November 1996, causing a pair of big rigs to plunge into it.

One of Titan's Strange Seas is Pure Methane

One of Titan's Strange Seas is Pure Methane

This image, taken by the Cassini spacecraft, shows the first flash of sunlight reflected off a hydrocarbon lake on Saturn’s moon Titan. The July 2009 image confirmed the presence of liquid in the moon’s northern hemisphere.

A new study of eight years of radar data collected by the Saturn-orbiting Cassini spacecraft shows that the planet’s largest moon, Titan, the only other body in the solar system besides Earth where liquids pool on the surface has a sea of pure methane.



Before Cassini, scientists had expected Titan’s seas to be dominated by ethane, since sunlight breaks apart methane and converts it into the more complex ethane hydrocarbon.

Instead, Alice Le Gall, a Cassini scientist at France’s LATMOS research laboratory, and colleagues discovered that Ligeia Mare, Titan’s second-largest sea, is almost pure methane.

Scientists suspect that methane rain may be regularly filling the sea, or that ethane is locked in the sea’s crust, or flowing into the adjacent sea, according to a press release about the study, which was published in the March 11 issue of Journal of Geophysical Research Planets.

The findings are based on radar observations made by Cassini between 2007 and 2015. Those measurements of heat given off by Ligeia Mare were combined with results of a 2013 experiment that bounced radar waves off the seafloor, which allowed scientists to estimate the sea’s depth.

Ligeia Mare, which turns out to be as deep as 525 feet, also likely sports a layer of organic-rich sludge on its floor, the scientists said.

“It’s a marvelous feat of exploration that we’re doing extraterrestrial oceanography on an alien moon,” Cassini scientist Steve Wall, with NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., noted in the press release.

Cassini, which has been studying the Saturn system for almost 12 years, has revealed that almost 2 percent of Titan’s 620,000 square miles of real estate are covered in liquid.

The moon has three large seas, all located in the northern polar region, that are surrounded by small lakes. So far, just one large lake has been found in Titan’s southern hemisphere.

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